Appendix:World/Diminutives and Augmentatives in Laefevian

Laefevian has a rich array of suffixes to denote diminutives, augmentatives, pejoratives and derogatory terms, as well as terms of endearment.

Overview

In Laefevian linguistics, these these terms are collectively known as qualitative derivatives or quality-changing derivations. These derivatives are formed by adding suffixes to the base word. There are five main categories here, with further subcategories formed by combining the five or six main ones.

The main qualitative derivatives are:

• diminutive: -enj or -inje
• augmentative: -uoha
• endearing: -kin or -okin
• pejorative: -ôkša
• derogatory: -hutta or -utta, -omja
• superlative: -(i)êngu

Compound derivations include:

• diminutive-endearing: -enkin
• augmentative-endearing: -uhkin
• diminutive-derogatory: -enjôkša
• augmentative-derogatory: -uǧôkša
• endearing-superlative: -(o)kinjêngu

There is also an extra intensifying suffix which can be added to any of the previous suffixes: -akka

Diminutive derivatives

The most widespread diminutive suffix is -enj, -inje or -iênnje, which traces its roots back to Proto-Laenkean *-jVŋjæs (also a diminutive suffix). The suffix does not, generally, convey any additional emotional connotations but it simply indicates a small size. If possible, the suffix also causes palatalisation of the preceding consonant.

Examples:

• nar “book” → narenj “booklet”
• rungêlj “plate” → rungiênnje “small plate, saucer”
• niv “dog” → nivenj “puppy, small dog”
• hvest “boy” → hvessenj “short boy, small boy”
• hrik “house” → hrišenj “small house”
• ñilǧu “tower” → ñilǧŵenj “small tower”
• hliku “core, nucleus” → hlikŵenj “small core, kernel, nucleolus”
• anso “island” → ansoinje “small island, isle”
• lêa “city” → lêainje “small city, small town”

Some words may have fossilised diminutives, which are older:

• ue “river” → ynje “small river”
• ea “moon” → izenj “small moon, moonlet”
• nea “star” → annje “small star, little star”

The intensifying suffix -akka can be added to these diminutive forms to indicate an even smaller size. These forms may also have endearing connotations.

• narenj “booklet” → narenjakka “very small book, tiny book, small booklet”
• nivenj “puppy, small dog, doggy” → nivenjakka “little puppy, little doggy”
• hrišenj “small house” → hrišenjakka “very small house, tiny house”
• ansoinje “small island, isle” → ansoinjakka “very small island, islet”

Augmentative derivatives

The opposite of the diminutive is the augmentative, which indicates a great size. The suffix is -uoha (variants -voha or -oha), which can be traced back to Proto-Laenkean *-kʰos (used to forms words indicating burden or authority). Like with the diminutive, there is generally no emotional connotations attached to this suffix.

Examples:

• nar “book” → naruoha “big book, tome”
• niv “dog” → nivvoha “large dog, big dog”
• hvest “boy” → hvestuoha “tall boy, big boy”
• hrik “house” → hrikuoha “big house, large house, mansion”
• ñilǧu “tower” → ñilǧuoha “tall tower, big tower”
• anso “island” → ansovoha, ansoha “big island, large island”
• lêa “city” → lêavoha “large city, metropolis”
• nolda “day” → nolduoha “great day, important day”

The intensifying suffix -akka can be added to these augmentative forms to indicate an even greater size. These forms may also carry some kind of a positive connotation.

• naruoha “big book, tome” → naruohakka “very big book, very big tome”
• nivvoha “large dog, big dog” → nivvohakka “very large dog, very big dog, a very big and nice dog”
• hrikuoha “big house, large house” → hrikuohakka “very large house, very big house, large mansion, a very big and nice house”
• ansovoha “big island, large island” → ansohakka “very big island, very large island”

Of course, with the right intonation, these intensified augmentatives can carry a negative connotation.

Endearing derivatives

This suffix is used to add some positive connotations to the base word, such as love, affection or courtesy. The suffix is -kin or -okin. It is an extremely commonly used suffix to derive terms of endearment. It is very common in colloquial language. The origin of the suffix is somewhat unclear but it is generally believed to be a compound suffix of Proto-Laenkean *-VkVs (indicates parts at the top or edge of something) and Proto-Laenkean *-VnVs (a noun-deriving suffix). The suffix may carry diminutive connotations, especially when used with terms of endearment referring to children.

Examples:

• nar “book” → narkin “precious book”
• niv “dog” → nivkin “doggy, puppy, boy/girl (referring to a pet dog)”
• hvest “boy” → hveskin “little boy (family), boyfriend (romantic)”
• hrik “house” → hrikkin, hrikokin “childhood house, childhood home”
• anso “island” → ansokin “beautiful island, an island one is fond of”
• lêa “city” → lêakin “hometown”
• jurwe “love” → jurwekin, jurwokin “darling, love (person)”
• ussôlt “treasure” → ussôlkin “honey, darling, treasure (person)”
• vant “father” → vanskin, vankin, vantokin “dad, daddy”
• letta “mother” → leskin, lettakin, lettokin “mum, mummy”

The endearing suffix is also frequently used with personal names:

• Lesond “Snoweagle*” → Lesonkin
• Leskullent “Snowforest*” → Leskullenkin, Leskulkin, Leskunkin
• Leihm”s “Snowhoney*” → Leihm”skin
• Kwargond “Raveneagle*” → Kwargonkin
• Valmesolt “Stormthought*” → Valmesolkin, Valmeskin, Valmelkin

* These are just literal translations of the Laefevian names.

The intensifying suffix -akka can be added to this suffix as well, resulting in -kinakka or just -kinka, with the latter being very common in baby talk (where it also comes with a diminutive connotation):

• nivkin “doggy, puppy, boy/girl (referring to a pet dog)” → nivkinakka, nivkinka “little puppy”
• hveskin “little boy (family), boyfriend (romantic)” → hveskinakka, hveskinka “darling boy (family), boyfriend (romantic)”
• jurwekin, jurwokin “darling, love (person)” → jurwekinakka, jurwekinka, jurwokinakka, jurwokinka “darling love (person)”

When applying the endearing suffix, especially when combined with the intensifying one, the resulting term is also typically prefixed with a possessive prefix, especially personal names:

• lêa “city” → lêakin “hometown” → ollêakin “my hometown”
• jurwe “love” → jurwekin, jurwokin “darling, love (person)” → ojjurwekin, ojjurwokin “my darling, my love (person)”
• niv “dog” → nivkin “doggy, puppy, boy/girl (referring to a pet dog)” → nivkinakka, nivkinka “little puppy” → onnivkinakka, onnivkinka “my little puppy my little boy/girl (referring to a pet dog)”
• Lesond “Snoweagle” → Lesonkin → olLesonkin* “my dear Snoweagle” → olLesonkinakka* “my dearest Snoweagle, my dear little Snoweagle”
• Kwargond “Raveneagle” → Kwargonkin → okKwargonkin* “my dear Raveneagle” → okKwargonkinakka* “my dearest Raveneagle, my dear little Raveneagle”

* Possessive prefixes do not become capitalised when added to names.

These are also equivalent to English expressions such as “love, my darling” or “honey, my darling” or “[NAME], my darling/dear” and so on.

Superlative derivatives

The superlative suffix -(i)êngu is used to indicate the (absolute) veracity, verisimilitude, realness, the highest or best quality, or the highest or greatest importance of the base word. These words are often used in some kind of contrastive context where one entity, which is considered to be more real or of better quality, is compared to another entity, which is then considered to be of lesser quality or importance. Etymologically, the suffix is just a nominalised version of the adjectival absolute superlative suffix -êngwis.

Examples:

• nar “book” → nariêngu “real book, actual book”
• niv “dog” → niviêngu “real dog, actual dog”
• hvest “boy” → hvestiêngu “real boy”
• hrik “house” → hrikiêngu “actual house, true house”
• nem “milk” → nemiêngu “real milk, actual milk, true milk”
• hant “man” → hantiêngu “real man, true man, man of his word”
• arjoþ “friend” → arjoþiêngu “real friend, true friend, best friend”
• hynjo” “seat” → hynjo”iêngu “front row seat”
• venkwe “news” → venkŵêngu “most important news, news of the day, breaking news”
• nolda “day” → noldiêngu “best day, most important day, greatest day”
• rint “life” → rintiêngu “real life”
• zov “meat” → zoviêngu “real meat, natural meat”

The intensifying suffix -akka can be used in combination with this suffix as well, resulting in -(i)êngakka, but the derived word typically gain humorous, cynical, sarcastic or even derogatory connotations:

• niviêngu “real dog, actual dog” → niviêngakka
• hvestiêngu “real boy” → hvestiêngakka
• hantiêngu “real man, true man, man of his word” → hantiêngakka
• hynjožiêngu “front row seat” → hynjožiêngakka

The superlative suffix can also contrast with the prefix erhw- “main-, arch-, head-”, for example, erhuvenkwe, lit. “main news, arch-news, top news”, would be used in a newspaper to refer to the most important news in the publication (it also cannot be changed any more), while venkŵêngu would be used on TV when talking about the currently most important piece of news.

Pejorative and derogatory derivatives

The opposite of the endearing derivatives are, of course, pejorative and derogatory derivatives. There are now several different suffixes, which differ slightly from each other in meaning and formation.

The pejorative suffix -ôkša

This is the typical and most widely used pejorative suffix in Laefevian, its main form is -ôkša, with two variants, -iôkša and -vôkša. It can be appended to pretty much any noun to convey some kind of lesser quality of the base word, often ugliness or inability, badness, evilness, or malice. The origins of the suffix are unclear but it is generally agreed that it is a compound suffix with the -ôk- part being cognate with the augmentative suffix.

Examples:

• nar “book” → narôkša “bad, terrible or lousy book (in terms of its content), ugly book (appearance)”
• niv “dog” → nivôkša “ugly dog, ugly and fierce dog”
• hvest “boy” → hvestôkša “ugly boy”
• launja “singer” → launjiôkša “bad singer, lousy singer”
• hrik “house” → hrikôkša “ugly house”
• nolda “day” → noldiôkša “bad day, terrible day, lousy day, long day, rough day”
• êrme “weather” → êrmiôkša “bad weather, rainy weather, lousy weather”
• lêa “city” → lêavôkša “ugly city”
• vêþ “woman” → vêþôkša “hag, ugly woman, bad woman, evil woman, vixen”
• hant “man” → hantôkša “ugly man, bad man, evil man”
• venkwe “news” → venkŵôkša “bad news”

As previously, the intensifying suffix -akka can be added:

• nivôkša “ugly dog, ugly and fierce dog” → nivôkšakka “very ugly dog, butt-ugly dog, ugly-ass dog”
• hvestôkša “ugly boy” → hvestôkšakka “very ugly boy, butt-ugly boy”
• hrikôkša “ugly house” → hrikôkšakka “very ugly house”
• noldiôkša “bad day, terrible day” → noldiôkšakka “absolutely terrible day, very lousy day”
• êrmiôkša “bad weather, rainy weather” → êrmiôkšakka “absolutely bad weather, very lousy weather”
• vêþôkša “ugly woman, bad woman, evil woman” → vêþôkšakka “ugly hag, cunt, very ugly woman, very bad woman”
• hantôkša “ugly man, bad man, evil man” → hantôkša “very ugly man, hideous man, very bad man”
• venkŵôkša “bad news” → venkŵôkšakka “absolutely terrible news”

The derogatory suffix -(h)utta

This is generally considered a derogatory suffix and it is used to refer to people only. It is similar to the pejorative suffix but the suffix -(h)utta conveys more of a moral judgement on the part of the speaker, carrying connotations of immorality, insincerity, disingenuousness, reproach, disgrace, shame, scorn, etc. In some cases, the meaning can be very close to the meaning of the words formed with the pejorative suffix. The suffix originates from the ending -(h)ut used in terms referring to the step-family members (e.g. vanhut (“stepfather”), lehhut (“stepmother”), šøskut (“stepbrother”), etc.).

Examples:

• hvest “boy” → hvestutta “bastard, son of a bitch”
• vêþ “woman” → vêþutta “bitch, cunt, slut, whore”
• hant “man” → hantutta “bastard, son of a bitch, mongrel”
• ruont “farmer” → ruontutta “peasant, redneck, hillbilly”
• launja “singer” → launjautta “fake singer, bad singer, lousy singer”
• êñwiltja “artist” → êñwiltjautta “fake artist, pretend artist”
• vaðja “right-winger” → vaðjautta “rightoid”
• jankja “left-winger” → jankjautta “leftoid”
• “mmaesavja “communist” → “mmaesavjautta, “mmahutta “commie”
• dulsieþja “police officer” → dulsieþjautta, dulsihutta, dulsutta “pig, filth, oinker”

This suffix can also be used with personal names:

• Lesond → Lesondutta, Lesohutta
• Leskullent → Leskullentutta, Leskuhutta
• Leihm”s → Leihm”sutta
• Kwargond → Kwargondutta, Kwargohutta
• Valmesolt → Valmesoltutta, Valmehutta

It is possible to use the intensifying suffix -akka with this suffix as well, resulting in -(h)uttakka:

• hvest “boy” → hvestutta “bastard, son of a bitch” → hvestuttakka “fucking bastard, fucking son of a bitch”
• vêþ “woman” → vêþutta “bitch, cunt, slut, whore” → vêþuttakka “fucking bitch, etc.”
• hant “man” → hantutta “bastard, son of a bitch, mongrel” → hantuttakka “fucking bastard, fucking mongrel”
• Lesond → Lesondutta, Lesohutta → Lesonduttakka, Lesohuttakka “fucking Lesond”
• Kwargond → Kwargondutta, Kwargohutta → Kwargonduttakka, Kwargohuttakka “fucking Kwargond”

When added to personal names (both -(h)utta or -(h)uttakka) is can also correspond to English structures like, “[NAME], you bastard/son of a bitch/etc.” or “[NAME], you bitch/cunt/etc.”, and so on.

The derogatory suffix -omja

The derogatory suffix -omja is also generally used to refer to people, but it can include pets and other animals one might feel strongly about. This suffix can be added to adjectives only, and it is used to create derogatory terms highlighting the characteristic of the base word. It is a compound suffix, originating from the deadjectival stative verb suffix -umad (i.e. “to be [ADJECTIVE]”) and the general agent suffix -ja (“-er”).

Examples:

• hmat “fat” → hmatomja “fatty, fatso, fat-ass”
• suldis “ugly” → suldomja “uggo”
• þurris “empty” → þurromja “airhead”
• hnagis “lazy” → hnagomja “layabout, lazy bum, slacker”
• šytis “slow” → šytomja “idiot, slow-ass”
• tôisus “dumb, stupid” → tôiskomja “idiot, dumbass”
• hlot “rich” → hlotomja “the rich (derogatory), the wealthies”
• fêmpis “poor” → fêmpomja “beggar, hobo, the poor (derogatory)”
• narkis “dirty” → narkomja “filthy person, dirty person”
• taltis “half” → taltomja “half-asser, someone who half-asses things”
• ôrwelgis “modest, humble” → ôrwelgomja “excessively modest/humble person”

-akka can be added to these terms as well:

• hmatomja “fatty, fatso, fat-ass” → hmatomjakka
• suldomja “uggo” → suldomjakka
• “urromja “airhead” → “urromjakka
• hnagomja “layabout, lazy bum, slacker” → hnagomjakka

Compound derivatives

Some of the main these quality-changing suffixes can be combined into news suffixes, which now convey both parts of the constituent elements. While the colloquial language allows for great variety of possible combinations, there are five combinations that are officially recognised. All the forms described below can also be extended by adding the intensifying suffix -akka but it is not used as frequently as it is with the base derivatives described above.

The diminutive-endearing suffix -enkin

This suffix is a combination of the diminutive suffix -enj (or -inje) and the endearing suffix -kin, resulting in -enkin, -inkin or -i”nkin, depending on the original diminutive suffix. A diminutive-endearing derivative conveys that the base word is both small in size and is also adorable, lovable, likeable, cute, pretty, etc. It is commonly used with terms denoting people, especially family members, and pets, but it is not restricted to these terms only and it can be freely used with any word.

Examples:

• nar “book” → narenj “booklet” → narenkin “cute little booklet”
• niv “dog” → nivenj “puppy, small dog” → nivenkin “cute little puppy, adorable little doggy”
• hvest “boy” → hvessenj “short boy, small boy” → hvessenkin “adorable little boy”
• hrik “house” → hrišenj “small house” → hrišenkin “pretty little house”
• elme “village” → elminje “small village, little village” → elminkin “cute little village, quaint little village”

The augmentative-endearing suffix -uhkin

A combination of the augmentative suffix -uoha (or -voha) and the endearing suffix -kin, resulting in -uhkin or -ohka. Like the diminutive-endearing derivatives, an augmentative-endearing derivative conveys that the base word is both great in size and is also adorable, lovable, likeable, beautiful, etc. It is used equally frequently with both human and non-human terms.

Examples:

• niv “dog” → nivvoha “large dog, big dog” → nivvohkin “big and adorable doggo”
• hvest “boy” → hvestuoha “tall boy, big boy” → hvestukin “tall and handsome boy”
• hrik “house” → hrikuoha “big house, large house, mansion” → hrikuhka “big and pretty house”
• lêa “city” → lêavoha “large city, metropolis” → lêavohkin “big and nice city”

The diminutive-derogatory suffix -enjôkša

A combination of the diminutive suffix -enj (or -inje) and the pejorative suffix -ôkša, resulting in -enjôkša, -injôkša or -iênnjôkša, depending on the form of the original diminutive. The combination of these two suffixes conveys a sense of belittlement, mockery, disparagement, ridicule, scorn, unworthiness, etc. It is commonly used with terms denoting people, especially professions, but it can also be used with any other word.

Example:

• hleiǧwirhêlj “politician” → hleiǧwirhiênnjôkša “politician (belittling), low-reputation politician, worthless politician”
• arjoþ “friend” → arjotlenjôkša “little friend (belittling), worthless little friend”
• dulsieþja “police officer” → dulsieþjainjôkša “silly little policeman, incapable police officer”
• hant “man” → hansenjôkša “sad little man”
• lêa “city” → lêainjôkša “small little crime-riddled town”

The augmentative-derogatory suffix -uǧôkša

This suffix is a combination of the augmentative suffix -uoha (or -voha) and the pejorative suffix -ôkša, resulting in -uǧôkša or -oǧôkša, depending on the stem of the base word. It is used to refer to entities of great size (or importance) but with a sense of mockery, ridicule, scorn, pretence, fakery, etc. added to it. It may also convey pity, however. It is more commonly used with non-human terms but can be freely used with human terms as well. With human terms, however, the notion of a large physical size may be secondary or not present at all.

Examples:

• niv “dog” → nivvoha “big dog, large dog” → nivvoǧôkša “big and abandoned dog”
• tent “bed” → tentuoha “big bed, large bed” → tentuǧôkša “big and uncomfortable bed”
• hrik “house” → hrikuoha “big house, large house, mansion” → hrikuǧôkša “big and dilapidated house”
• elme “village” → elmuoha “large village” → elmuǧôkša “large and (partly-)abandoned village”
• hlurþ “castle” → hlurþuoha “big castle, large castle” → hlurþuǧôkša” “large and ill-maintained castle”
• hant “man” → hantuoha “big man, large man, tall man” → hantuǧôkša “big and unkempt man, (tall) man that doesn't take care of himself”

The endearing-superlative suffix -kinjêngu

As the name suggests, this suffix is a combination of the endearing suffix -kin (or -okin) and the superlative suffix -iêngu, resulting in -kinjêngu or -okinjêngu, depending on the form of the original stem. These terms now convey the same as the base endearing words but with a sense of superiority, uniqueness or the greatest importance added to it. These are especially common with term referring to friends, romantic partners and pets, but can also be used with any other word.

Examples:

• niv “dog” → nivkinjêngu “the best doggo, the best boy, the best girl”
• hvest “boy” → hveskinjêngu “the best boy(friend) (affectionate)”
• arjo” “friend” → arjoskinjêngu “dear best friend, most important friend (affectionate)”
• jurwe “love” → jurwokinjêngu “greatest love (of one's life)”

As with the regular endearing suffix, this one is often typically accompanied by a possessive prefix:

• nivkinjêngu → onnivkinjêngu “my best doggo, my best boy, my best girl”
• arjoskinjêngu → orjoskinjêngu “my most important dear friend”
• jurwokinjêngu → jajjurwokinjêngu “the greatest love of his life, his greatest love”